Hills.

The chief hills of the district are the Sahyadris. Except a belt about two miles broad in the extreme east of Pen, Kolaba is separated from the Sahyadris first by Karjat in Thana and Afterwards by a large semicircular tract of the Pant Sachiv's state of Bhor that stretches nearly half way from the Sahyadris to the sea. from Patnus, about twelve miles east of Kolad, the Sahyadris form the eastern limit of the district. From this they run about twelve miles South, then about twenty miles south-east, and from that, in an irregular line, about thirty miles south-west.

During the whole of this distance, with only one or two outstanding peaks and with almost no gaps or passes, the Sahyadris stretch like a huge wall, from a distance apparently bare but closer at hand showing signs of vegetation with deep well wooded ravines and terraces thick with evergreen forest. The only notable peaks are the Kumbhiacha Dongar or Dhaner hill in the south-east of Mangaon, end Pratapgad in Mahad. Besides these, from the middle of Mahad, above and behind the line of the Sahyadris, may be seen the lofty peak of Torna fort. Of Sahyadri passes two only are fit for wheeled vehicles, the FitzGerald pass and the Varandha pass, both in the south-east corner of the district, the roads centering in the trading town of Mahad. From almost every village along the line of hills a footpath runs across the Sahyadris, but few of them are fit for laden bullocks. Sixteen of these footpaths may be noticed, three to the south and thirteen to the north of the Varandha pass. The three to the south are the Par pass near Kineshvar leading to Mahabaleshvar, and the Dhavla and Kamtha passes, leading to Vai in Satara. Of the thirteen footpaths north of Varandha, beginning from the south there are the Umbarda pass near the village of Majeri leading to the Bhor state; the Gopya pass near Shivtar leading to Poona; the Ambenal pass near Ambe Shivtar leading to Poona; the Madhya pass near the village of Vakibudruk leading to Poona; the Shevtya pass leading along the Torna fort in Bhor to Poona; the Kavalya pass near the village of Kavale and forming a part of the road to Poona: the Kumbha pass near the village of Mashidvadi; the Linga pass near the village of Jite; the Nisni pass running through the limits of Umbardi the Tamhani, Levasthali, and Thiba passes within the limits of Vilegaon; and the Pimpri pass running through the, limits of Patnus near Nizampur.

The minor ranges are so numerous and irregular and have so many cross spurs and offshoots, that they are difficult to group under main; ranges or hill systems. One well marked rugged belt runs along almost the whole west, of the district. In the north, rising' from Bombay harbour in bare rocky slopes, it gathers into a Central range of which Kankeshvar (about 1000 feet; in the extreme north and Sagargad (1164 feet.) about six miles to the south are the leading peaks. From Sagargad it stretches, a well marked thickly wooded range, about six miles to the south-east, and then six miles to the south, where, near Mahan, it is crossed by the valley of a nameless stream that runs west into the Karana creek. Beyond this valley the hills again rise, meeting the western end of the Sukeli range, and together stretch about, two miles south to Vave on the Kundalika river about six miles below Roha. South of the Roha river the hills again rise, and, with uplands and low brushwood-covered ranges with occasional rocky fortified peaks, fill the whole western belt of the district about twenty milles south to Ghodegaon.

About half way between this western belt of hills and the Sahyadris, another more broken and irregular line, centres, in the north, of the great plateau of Mira Dongar (about 1100 feet) from two to six miles south-east of Pen. From this, running south, behind Nagothna, it crosses the Sukeli range; that divides the Amba and Kundalika valleys, and, stretching east of Kolad, runs south to Mangaon dividing the valleys of the Ghod on the west from the Kal on the east.

South of Mangaon a long ragged spur, dividing Mangaon from Mahad stretches from the Sahyadris gradually growing tamer and barer about fourteen miles to Dasgaon. Parallel to this spur, and about midway between it and the Sahyadris, is the range that rises in the north in the famous hill fort of Raygad, a magnificent mass of rock with deep richly wooded ravines. Stretching south about ten miles, it breaks in three hare rocky spurs, which sink into the plain a little to the north of the Raygad-Kal river. Beyond the Raygad-Kal the hills again rise and pass south to the Mahabaleshvar hills. In the south are many other spurs and miner ranges, some stretching tame and flat-topped for miles, others with rough broken creats rising, as at Kangori or Mangalgad ten miles cast of Poladpur, in isolated fortified peaks. Some of the deeper and more outlying ravines are well wooded. But most of the southern hills are bare, the slopes of many being cropped with hill grains from base to crest.

Rivers.

The Kolaba rivers have the common characteristic that their courses are divided into two well marked sections above and below the limit of the tide. When they gather at the foot of the Sahyadris the streams pass on the whole west between high steep-cut banks along rocky beds, with here and there a stretch of gravel. In the rains the turgid torrents have in many places to be crossed by ferries. But during the dry season they cease to flow and form drains of pools separated by banks of gravel and ridges of rook. Below the limit of the tide the bed is muddy, broken by occasional dykes of rock, and the creek winds between banks high in places but in others so low as to require to be raised to prevent the overflow of the tide. Except the easy Mandad creek, the beds are in places blocked with belts of rock covered only at high tide and making the passage tedious and difficult.

Besides the streams that drain the western slopes of the Alibag hills, Kolaba has three distinct river systems. The north drains northward chiefly along the Amba or Nagothna river; the centre drains west along the Kundalika or Roha river and south-west along the Mandad river; the south drains into the west-flowing Savitri, most of it south along the valleys of the Ghod in the west, the Nizampur-Kal in the centre, and the Raygad-Kal in the east; and the extreme south drains north along the upper Savitri in the south-east, and the Nageshvari in the south-west.

In the north of Pen, between the Nagothna river in the west and the Patalganga in the east, is a lowlying salt swamp full of winding slimy tidal creeks, into which, about five miles from the mouth of the Patalganga, the Bhima drains alter a course of about sixteen miles across the north-east of Pen. About five miles further west, after a north-west course of about twenty miles through central Pen, the Bhogeshvari, Bhogavati, or Pen river, loss itself in a network of tidal creeks. This creek is navigable to Antora within four miles of Pun, at ordinary high tides to boats of seven tons (28 khandis) and at spring tides to beats of thirty-five tons (140 khandis). Beyond Antora only small craft can pass.

The Amba.

The Amba river, the main line of drainage for the north of the district, like other tidal rivers, forma two distinct streams, above and below tie limit of the tide. It rises in the Sahyadris near the Karondah pass about two miles south of Khandala, and, after a south-west course of about fifteen miles, tarns sharply to the northwest, and about four miles lower meets the tidal wave two miles above Nagothna. Where it meets the tide, the Amba, as late as January, has from three to four feet of water in midstream, and, during the rains, is a rapid torrent some ten feet deep. From Nagothna, twenty-four miles from the sea, the river is at high tides navigable by boats of fifteen tons (60 khandis). Below Nagothna, the river winds for about ten miles between forest-clad spurs, the channel at low tide blocked by rocky ledges. Near Dharamtar, about fourteen miles north of Nagothna, the rocks disappear, and the ranges of hills draw back, leaving a deep muddy channel, from a half to three-quarters of a mile broad, with low swampy banks green with mangrove and other sea bushes. Through the remaining nine miles from Dharamtar to Karanja where the Amba falls into Bombay harbour, except that it grows broader end deeper, and has on either side wider stretches of mangrove swamps, salt march, and reclaimed rice lands, the character of the river does not change. Between. Nagothna and the and the Amba receives no large tributary. The only streams of any size are two from the right bank and two from the left. Of the right bank streams the Nigadi river, after a short course chiefly draining the southern slopes of Mira Dongar, joins the Amba about six miles below Nagothna. The next, about twelve miles further, is the Vasi a salt creek whose waters run into the Pen river. The tributaries from the left are the Shahapur river, which, rising on the eastern slopes of Sagargad, drains eastern Alibag, and, after a north-east course of about eight miles, falls into the Amba five miles below Dharamtar. The other is the Revas creek, which, receives the drainage of north-east Alibag, and joins the Amba at Revas pier about a mile from its entrance into Bombay harbour.

As far as Dharamtar pier, about ten miles from its mouth, the creek is at all times navigable to boats of 62½ tons (250 khandis). Above Dharamtar navigation is difficult, and, at low tides, impossible. At ordinary high tides boats of fifteen tons (60 khandis), and at spring tides boats of twenty-five tons (100 khandis) can pass as high as Nagothna. Bat the passage almost always takes even ordinary sized vessels two high tides. So much time is wasted in waiting for water enough to cross the first rocks, that when the second barrier is eached the ebb has set in and it is no longer passable. Large boats which can go to Nagothna only at spring tides are forced to stay there until the next spring tides. In passing down the Amba, Nagothna must be left within two hours of high tide. During the dry season, because the tide is then higher and the wind favourable, the passage is made only at night. The Shepherd ferry steamers ply daily from Bombay to Revas and Dharamtar piers, and, in the fair season, there is a considerable traffic to Nagothna, chiefly the export of rice and the import of salt and fish.

There are four ferries across the Amba. Of these the furthest up is at Patansai about three miles above Nagothna where the Mahabaleshvar high road crosses the river. The next, about three miles below Nagothna, plies between Koleti on the right and Bendsi on the left. The next is between Dharamtar and Vave on the east or Pen side about ten miles further, and the last about six miles lower is between Mankule on the west and Vasi on the east.

The chief streams that drain west to the sea from the central Alibag hills, are the Avas with a north-westerly course of about six miles to Surekhar about eight miles north of Alibag; the Varsoli with a westerly course of about six miles to Varsoli, about two miles north of Alibag; and the Sakhar with a north-westerly course of about eight miles to Alibag.

The Kundalika.

The Kundalika, or Roha river, the main line of drainage for Central Kolaba, rises in the Sahyadris near the Garholot pass in the Bhor state, about twelve miles north-east of Kolad. After a westerly course of about twenty miles it meets the tide at Roha, and, for about twenty miles more to the west and north-west, stretches a navigable tidal inlet falling into the sea at Revdanda. The upper part of its course has scenes of great beauty, especially at The Kolad where a rocky ledge dams the water into a deep winding richly wooded reach about four miles long hemmed by rocky hills. Between Kolad and Roha, the bed is rocky and the banks high with some fine mange groves, and here, though it is a large river during the rains, in the fair season it is little more than a chain of pools. At Roha a stone wharf or causeway is used at spring tides by boats of fifteen tons (60 khandis), and at other high tides by boats of five tons (20 khandis). But, except in the rains, the creek is dry for about twelve hours in the day, and vessels can reach the pier only for about an hour and a half at each high tide. About a mile below Roha are several ridges of rock through one of which there is only one narrow channel, where the Revdanda ferryboat, if kept back by light or head winds, has often to stop and set its passengers on shore. For five mile's more the water is shallow with numerous sandbanks, Then, for the remaining fourteen miles to Revdanda, navigation is easy, with water enough at all tides for vessels of fifty tons (200 khandis).

Throughout its whole length the creek of the wooded hills, as Kundalika seems to mean, is very beautiful. [The word seems to be Dravidian khand hill, ala full of, ka wooded. See Caldwell's Grammar, 39, 456, 465.] On both sides, behind a belt of salt marsh and rice fields, the hills rise wooded and rugged. Occasionally a bend of the creek cuts off its outlet and leaves a stretch of water, as if an inland lake, in places over a mile broad. The mouth of the creek is specially beautiful. To the north are the rich palm groves and orchards of Chaul and the ruined Portuguese fortifications and churches of Revdanda, and, to the south, on a high headland running half across the mouth of the creek, the picturesque fort of Korlai.

During its passage across the district the Kundalika receives only two considerable streams. From the right, about four miles above Chaul, two streams join the creek in the village lands of Bhonang, the Ramraj with a westerly course of about six, and the Bale with a southerly course of about eight miles. The chief other tributary is the Achalbag, which, after draining the hills near the Janjira border, falls into the Kundalika about ten miles below Roha In spite of the difficulties of the passage in the five miles below Roha, during the for season, there is a considerable export chiefly of rice and firewood, and an import of fish and salt. The boats vary from five to fifteen tons (20-60 khandis). The river is crossed by four ferries. Of these, one between Kolad and Pui, about eight miles above Roha, and another between Roha and Ashtami ply only during the rainy season: and two, below tidal limits, ply throughout the year, one between Padam and Khargaon about two, and the other between Chavri and Shedsai about eight miles west of Roha.

Except to a small extent above Roha where it is raised by the bucket-lift, the water of the Kundalika is not used for irrigation.

The Mandad.

The Mandad creek, which with, the Kundalika shares the drainage of Central Kolaba, does not pass more than fifteen miles inland to the rugged uplands that bound the Kundalika valley on the south and the Ghod valley on the west. Two small streams, one with a westerly course of about six miles and the other with a south-easterly course of about five miles, join at Kondthara about five miles south-east of Ghosale fort, and stretch about five miles south-west to Mandad, where they meet the tide and are joined from the left by the Bamanghar river. The Mandad river, alter about eight miles of a winding course to the south, falls into the Janjira creek about ten miles from its mouth. Below Mandad the creek, winding among high well-wooded hills, has many views of great beauty. Boats of as much as fifty tons (200 khandis) can reach Mandad at spring tides and boats of 12½ tons (50 khandis) at ordinary high tides. At spring tides small boats of about 6¼ tons (25 khandis) can pass as far as Malate four miles above Mandad.

The Savitri or The Bankot.

In the south the Savitri, or Bankot creek, the chief of Kolaba rivers, gathers either directly or along its tributaries more than half of the district drainage. Rising in the south-east corner of the district, in the village of old Mahabaleshvar, it runs west for six miles. It then flows north-west for five miles and from about a mile below Poladpur runs north for about eight miles. It then turns sharply to the west, and, two miles further, meets the tide about two miles above the town of Mahad. From Mahad it is navigable, but rocky and winding, six miles west to Dasgaon, From Dasgaon it stretches about six miles south-west and west till it reaches the border of the district, and from there, dividing Janjira in the north from Ratnagiri in the south, passes about twenty miles west to the sea. The land along the banks of the Savitri is rocky and hilly as far as Poladpur. It then stretches about eight miles to Kambla, and Rajvadi in a broad well tilled valley. Near Mahad there is some rich land and high tillage, but further along near Dasgaon and for about six miles below to the Janjira border, the hills come close to the river's edge. In its course through the district the Savitri receives six large tributaries, four from the right bank, and two from the left. The right bank tributaries are the Kamthi, which, rising in the Kamthi hills, joins the Savitri after a southerly course of four miles. About ton miles below the meeting of the Kamthi and the Savitri is the Raygad Kal, which, rising in the hills to the north of Raygad fort, flows south-east and south for about sixteen miles between the Raygad range and the Sahyadris, and then, turning five miles to the west, falls into the Savitri about four miles above Mahad. A little below Mahad comes the Gandhari, with a straight southerly course of about twelve miles between the Raygad and Dasgaon hills. Six miles further, at Dasgaon, comes the Ghod river which, with its tributary the Nizampur-Kal, drains the east and centre of the district as far north as the Kundalika valley. At Mangaon, about ten miles northwest of Dasgaon, the Ghod, after a winding southerly course of about, ten miles, and the Nizampur-Kal, after a winding south-westerly course of about eighteen miles, join, and, after about two miles, receiving the Per from the right, pass three miles south till they meet the tide near Ghodegaon, an old trade centre probably translated by Ptolemy into the Greek name Hippokura. [The form of the name in Ptolemy's time was probably Ghodekul] From Ghodegaon the river passes about four miles south and two east, and falls in to the Savitri a little below Dasgaon. The two left bank tributaries are the Chola. which, after a northerly course of about ten miles, joins the Savitri close to Poladpur; and the Nageshvari, which, with a northerly coarse of about fourteen miles, falls into the Savitri nearly opposite Dasgaon. Though bare rocky uplands are nowhere far off, along the barks of all of these streams, is a considerable belt of rich land yielding two crops a year, and in places covered with gardens and groves. At suitable spots where the banks are steep, the bucket and lever-lift is used to water the lands along the banks.

The Savitri is navigable at high water as far as Dasgaon for vessels drawing ten feet. At Dasgaon there is a stone jetty at which native craft load and discharge cargo. Vessels drawing less than nine feet can at high-water spring-tidez go as far as Mabad. Up to Mahad, at all times of the tide, the river is navigable to small creft and canoes. The sixteen miles above the Ratnagiri town of Mahapral are extremely difficult. A small boat if it fails to leave Mahad within an hour of high water will hardly get further than Desgaon. Even below Dasgaon the river if narrow, and shoals and rocky reefs and ledge make the passage difficult and dangerous. A steam launch, running in connection with Shepherd's steamers, daily brings passengers from Bankot to Dasgaon. But sailing boats often spend three or four days in working from Mahapral to Mabad. The eighteen miles west of Mahapral can be passed at all tides by vessels of five tons (20 khandis).

There are four ferries across the Savitri, between Chambhar-khind and Kandivti about two miles above Mahad and between Poladpur and Chari used only during the south-west monsoon, between Mahad and Dadli used all the year round but only at high tides, and between Dasgaon and Goteh used at all times of the year and at all tides. A fifth ferry, on the Ghod river, between Tol and Vir about half a mile above its meeting with the Savitri, is used at high tides. A sixth, on the Nageshvari, between Tudil and Kosimbi close to where it joins the Savitri, has since 1880 been superseded by a wooden bridge. Floods are not uncommon in the Savitri. In 1852 many of the river bank villages in Mahad were damaged by floods of salt and fresh water. [Bom. Gov. Rev. Rec. 19 of 1857, 3088.] In July 1875 and in 1876 floods swept the river banks and caused much injury.

Reservoirs.

The three northern sub-divisions have fifteen large reservoirs and lakes; but in Mahad and Mangaon there are none of any considerable size. Six of the fifteen are in Alibag. The Alibag reservoir, built in 1876 out of municipal funds including a donation of £2000 (Rs. 20,000) by the late Rav Bahadu; Dhundiraj Vinayak Bivalkar of Alibag, has an area of about seven acres and a greatest depth of about twenty feet. It holds water all the year round. It has banks, of earth with a two feet thick puddle wall in the centre, faced with stone pitching on the inner side. It supplies the town with water through a nine-inch earthenware pipe laid under ground along a distance of nearly a mile and a half. Chaul has two reservoirs; the Bovala reservoir, an old Hindu work, with a greatest depth of fourteen feet, and an area of about 2½ acres; it holds water throughout the year. The banks are of earth except at one spot where a masonry dam to carry off water for irrigation was built in 1874. But at present no water is allowed for irrigation as the whole supply is required for drinking and washing. The second Chaul reservoir, known as the Naragaon reservoir, has a greatest depth of fifteen feet, and an area of about six acres; it holds water all the year round. There is no masonry work. At Nagaon, between Revdanda and Alibag, besides several smaller ponds, there are the Shri Nageshvar and Pathardi reservoirs. The Shri Nageshvar reservoir called from the temple of Nageshvar on its bank, was built about 1773 during the time of Raghoji Angria (1759-1793). It has masonry walls, an area of about six acres, and a greatest depth of twenty-one feet. It holds water all the year round. The Pathardi reservoir, built without masonry, has a greatest depth of six feet and an area of about 2½ acres; it is said to have been dug during the time of Kanhoji (1698-1728) the founder of the Angria family. It holds water all the year round. At Akshi, on the south side of the Sakhar or Alibag creek, is a very old reservoir with a greatest depth of fourteen feet, an area of about three acres, and a supply of water that lasts throughout the year.

Pen has six large reservoirs, of which four are at Pen, one at Vasi, and one at Vadav. The Kasar lake at Pen, built without masonry about 1627, has an area of about six acres. There is much silt, and, at the end of May, only two or three feet of water remain. The Khavandal reservoir, built about the same time also without masonry, has an area of about three acres. At the end of May only two or three feet of water are left. The Chambhar reservoir, built about 1750, has an area of about five acres and a depth of about seven feet. The Water-works reservoir, formed by damming a small valley in the hills near Pen, has an area of about five acres and a greatest depth of about twenty-five feet. There is no silt and it holds water throughout the year. There is an earth dam finished in 1876 with a puddle wall several feet thick in the centre, faced on the inside with stone pitching. Its water is carried about half a mile by a line of earthen and iron pipes The Vasi reservoir, built about 1777, has an area of thirty acres and a greatest depth of twelve feet. The Vadav reservoir, built in 1862, has an area of ten acres and a greatest depth of eight feet.

Of the three chief Roha reservoirs one is at Ashtami, one at Sangada, and one at Mehda. The Ashtami lake, across the creek from Roha, has an area of about eight acres and a greatest depth of twenty feet. It holds water throughout the year. The Sangads reservoir, about three miles west of Roha, has an area of about seven acres. It is shallow and its water is used for cattle drinking. The stone pond at Mehda, about three miles north of Roha, was built in the time of Peshwa Bajirav II. (1796-1818). [Besides these many smaller ponds are scattered over the district. In 1854 there were in Angria s Kolaba 160 ponds holding water from five to twelve months, and varying from 2240 to 112 feet in circumference. Of the whole number 143 were mere exacavations withont built sides, ten were in complete repair with stone and mortar sides. and of seven the sides were only partly built. Bom. Gov. Sel. New Series. (1854), VII. 38, 39.]

Wells.

According to the Collector's return for 1880-81, there were 4661 wells, of which 810 had steps and 3851 had no steps. Of the step wells 302 were in Alibag, 217 in Pen, eighty-one in Roha, thirty-three in Mangaon, and 177 in Mahad; of the stepless wells 2157 were in Alibag, 442 in Pen, 202 in Roha, 423 in Mangaon, and 627 in Mahad. [In Angria's Kolaba there were (1854) 2111 wells of which 1099 were used for drinking and 1012 for irrigation. Of the latter number 466 were large and 546 were small. The greatest number of wells was in cocoanut plantations, along the sea shore, and the least in the salt tracts where some villages were about two miles from their wells.]