Minerals.

THE only mineral which is known to occur is iron, of which traces are found in the laterite in different parts of the district. As the rocks and hills are of basaltic trap good building stone is every where Minerals. readily found. The cost of quarrying is from 6s. to 7s. (Rs. 3 - Rs. 3 ½) the 100 cubic feet of good sized rubble. Large square-cot stones cost from 6d. to 1s. (as. 4-8) the cubic foot. There is no want of road metal. Within a mile of the quarry, the cost of quarrying, breaking and carrying varies from 11s. to 12s. (Rs. 5½-Rs. 6) the 100 cubic feet.

Sand is plentiful in all rivers and creeks; carriage is the only element of cost. Building lime comes as a rule from Bombay or Salsette. In the black soil near Kihim in Alibag and in parts of Mangaon, good nodular lime, kanhar, is found. But it is in small quantities, and the cost of gathering is more than the freight from Bombay or Salsette. Shell lime is burnt in small quanties at Alibag and other places on the coast. It is not suited for masonry work and is chiefly used for whitewashing; it is made only for local use. Ordinary tiles, water vessels, and cheap bricks are made more or less all over the district from rice-field clay. But there is no really fine clay from which pottery or good bricks can be made. Rice husks are an excellent tile and brick-kiln fuel and are used for burning shell lime. The price of wheel-made tiles varies from 6s. to 7s. (Rs 3- Rs. 3½) the 1000, and English pattern bricks cost about £1 (Rs. 10) the 1000.

Forests.

Kolaba is fairly rich in forests. Except some patches along the banks of creeks and rivers which yield mangrove and other. brushwood the Kolaba forests are all on the slopes and tops of hills. The northern sub-divisions, Pen, Alibag and Roha, with bolder and more clearly marked hill ranges, fewer people, and a larger area of rice land, are well wooded and have large rich forests. The southern sub-divisions, Mangaon and Mahad, with lower and more sloping hills, a denser and probably an older population, and a smaller area under rice, are thinly wooded and have few forests, most of the hill slopes being set apart for the growth of coarse grains.

Besides the disconnected wooded ravines and terraces in the Sahyadri hills, the uplands brought under the charge of the forest department in 1881, and the detached patches of timber in Mahad, all together covering an area of 153 square miles, [A large area along the borders of creeks is not included in this total.] the Kolaba forests may be grouped into twelve blocks or ranges, three in Alibag, five in Pen, one in Nagothna, one between Nagothna, Roha and Alibag, one in west Roha, and one in west Mangaon. These blocks or ranges include a roughly estimated area of about 124,000 acres or 194 square miles.

The Angria chiefs were careful to guard their timber, and, in 1840, when the Kolaba state fell to the British its teak and black-wood were valuable both in quantity and in quality. [Bom. Gov. Sel. VII. 25.] In Alibag, on the slopes and flat tops of the hills that run through the sub-division from the north-west to the south-east, are still some large and valuable forests. These forests may be arranged under three blocks, Kankeshvar in the north, Sagargad in the centre, and Bidvagle-Bheloshi in the south. The KANKESHVAR BLOCK, in the north-west, has an estimated area of about 4000 acres, and includes the forest lands of seventeen villages of which sixteen belong to Government, and one, Kankeshvar, is alienated. [The seventeen villages are, Saral, Kavade, Vaijali, Chincholi, Satghar, Kamarli, Palambe, Beloli, Bahiroli, Mapgaon, Satarjeh, Kankeshvar, Jhirad, Avas, Dhokavda, Mandva, and Koproli.] Except a little marketable teak in Kavade the forests of this block are little more than brushwood, most of which is found in the village lands of Saral. The natural outlets for the produce of these forests are the ports of Mandva in the north and of Revas in the east. The SAGARGAD BLOCK includes the slopes of the range that rises beyond the valley to the south of Kankeshvar, and stretches about nine miles south-east to the Pir pass, the line of communication between Poynad and Revdanda. This block has an estimated area of 10,000 acres and includes the forest lands of thirty villages, of which three Munevli, Sagaon, and Velat are alienated. [The thirty villages are, Munevli, Sagaon, Parhur, Goteghar, Gan, Sagargad, Tadvagle, Velus or Velat, Kharoshidalvi, Bherse, Veloli, Vadav, Bamangaon, Kavir, sahan, Dhavar, Belkade, Kurul, Vadgaon, Nigda, Paveli, Rule, Kaloshi, Taloli, Sagaon, Karla, Mule, Man, Bhal, and Tundal.] The western slopes of these hills, including the forest lands of Munevli, Tundal, Bhal, Man, Mule, Kurul, and Sagaon, are at present bare even of brushwood, and, in the south, the lands of Vadav, Veloli, and Bherse have but a scanty supply of trees. The rest of the slopes, especially near Sagargad, are well wooded containing a large stock of teak much of it gnarled and stunted, but some of it, as in Rule about a mile to the north of Sagargad, well grown. Except some fine mango groves the slopes of this block do not contain much evergreen forest. Such of the bill tops as are broad and flat are bare of trees and are let out partly for tillage partly for grazing. These forests are regularly worked, the cuttings being generally confined to stunted and gnarled trees. The produce passes either west to Alibag or east along the Alibag-Dharamtar road to the Bhakarvat boat station on a tributary of the Dharamtar creek. The third or BIDVAGLE-BHELOSHI BLOCK includes the south-eastern section of the Alibag hills which is connected by a wooded spur with the Sagargad hills and runs parallel with it stretching about two miles north and about five miles south. This is perhaps the finest forest in the district. It has an estimated area of 14,000 acres and includes the forest lands of sixteen villages, of which one, Kolghar, is alienated. [The sixteen villages are, Kharoshi-Bhond, Bopoli, Molghar, Talashot shrigaon, Kusumbla, Ravet, Ruishet-Bomoli, Bidvagale, part of Mahan, Murunda, Umta, Borghar, Majne, Bhuloshi. and Kune.] Except the lower slopes which are pure teak, the bulk of this forest is of evergreen timber. The upper slopes and many of the hill tops are thickly covered with evergreen timber, with a few tillage clearings and small hamlets of Dhangars, Thakurs, and Kathkaris. Gnarled and decaying timber is regularly cut and taken out of the forest, chiefly west to Ramvaj and Revdanda and east to the Bhakarvat and Sambri boat stations.

Pen.

Of the six Pen blocks, beginning from the north, the NORTH-EAST PEN RANGE, along the southern slopes of the hills that separate Pen from Karjat in Thana, has an estimated area of 5500 acres and includes the forest lands of eight villages of which one, Ashti, is alienated. [The eight villages are, Parkandi, Vavshi, Taloshi, Bausai, Karambeli, Vasivli, Ashti. and Ghoti.] Towards the north-west the slopes of these hills are at present bare. Farther to the east there is some teak on the lower and some evergreen forests on the upper slopes. But the hills do not at present yield any timber. The next group of forests, which may be called the EAST PEN BLOCK, has an area of about 5500 acres and includes the forest lands of the four villages, Khanav, Umbre, Chavni, and Tuksai that lie in the extreme east of the belt of Pen that runs across to the Poona border. Thin is a well grown and valuable forest chiefly of teak with some evergreen timber in the upper slopes. Most of the produce finds its way by rail to Poona. Further north, at the northern end of the more easterly range of hills that divide the Bhima from the Pen river, is the BELAVDA-MALEVADI BLOCK including 1600 acres of the forest lands of those two villages. Though the area is small it is thickly covered with timber almost all of it teak. The produce finds its way to Bombay by the Bhima river. In the more westerly of the ranges that divide the Bhima from the Pen river, along its western slopes close to the borders of the last Pen Block, is the RAMRAJ-AGHAI RANGE. This has an estimated area of 7000 acres and includes the forest lands of twelve villages, [These are, Ramji, Dhavte, Ambeghar, Savarsai, Sapeli, Pimpalgaon, Mangrud, Kamali, Paneda Vakrul, Dhamni, and Aghai.] of which seven, with an area of 4500 acres, are alienated, Ramraj, Savarsai, Sapoli, Pimpalgaon, Mangral, Paneda, and Vakrul. Of the Government villages Kamarli has some useful teak, and Aghai and Dhamni a good mixture of evergreen forest and teak; the rest of the forests are poor. Some of the produce finds its way by rail to Poona and some by sea to Bombay. To the south-west, across the Bhogavati or Pen river, is the MIRA. DONGAR BLOCK. This centres in the great Mira Dongar hill and has as estimated area of about 9500 acres including the forest lands of thirteen Government villages. [The names are, Kurnad Jirna, Irani, Borgaon, Shen, Talavli, Adharne, Kurmurli, Manegeon, Hetavna, Varavna, Tilora, and Mira Dongar.] The timber is pure teak on the lower slopes and evergreen forests on the upper slopes and hill tops. On some of the Mira slopes is a sprinkling of the myrobalau-bearing hirda, Terminalia chebula. The forests are worked departmentally, most of the produce finding its way to Bombay either by the Pen or by the Nagothna river. South of Mira Dongar the hills that run south to Pali in the Bhor state and which may be called the EAST MAGOTHNA RANGE, have an estimated forest area of 16,000 acres including the forest lands of twenty-one Government villages. [Their names are, Khondvi, Nigda, Revali, Jamboshi, Amtem, Karli, Varap, Koleti, Palas, nine in the north; Kondgaon, Nagothna, Vasgaon, Piloshri, Chikalgaon, Unheri Bk., Kumbharshet, Balap, Rabgaon, Vajroli, Patansai, Chikni, twelve in the south.] The produce of the nine northern villages is almost entirely teak, and of the twelve southern villages partly teak and partly evergreen forest. The best and most valuable forests are in the central village of Kondgaon about two miles north-east of Nagothna. The forests of Chikalgaon in the extreme east have a special value from their large number of hirda trees which yield from twenty-four to twenty-eight tons (60-70 khandis) of myrobalans a year. The forests are worked departmentally, the produce finding its way by the Amba river to Bombay.

When about half way across the district, the range of hills that separates Nagothna and Alibag on the, north from Roha on the south, sends a spur northwards which for about six miles divides Nagothna from Alibag. The forests on these hills, which may be styled the SUKELI RANGE, have an estimated area of about 31,500 acres and include the forest lands of sixty-three villages. These villages may be arranged into three groups; forty-three eastern villages of which fourteen hold the north or Nagothna and twenty-nine the south or Roha slopes; [The eastern Nagothna villages are, beginning from the east, Shiloshi, Tamsoli, Mandoli, Mandavshet, Sukeli, Ainghar, Kansai, Godsai, Balsai, Vangni, Ambdoshi, Vervatna, Mandva, and Pingoda. The eastern Roha villages are, beginning from the west, Bhataai, Varavda, Pale, Pophalghar, Bhisa, Revali, Nigda, Nidi, Avchitghad, Padam, Pingalsai Khard, Madhali Khurd, Varandoli, Songaon Chamansai, Malsai, Bhutoli Khurd, Uddavne, Devkanhe, Dhankanhe, Chilhe, Taloli, Nadoli, Khamb, Vaisnath, Surgad, Ainvahal, Chincholi, and Kandla.] eight central villages in the northern spur of which four hold the eastern or Nagothna and four the western or Alibag slopes; [The four Nagothna villages are, Kadsure, Kuhire, Bendshe, and Shihu; the four Alibag villages are, Sambri, Aveti, a small part of Bidvagle, and part of Mahan.] and twelve western villages eight holding the north or Alibag and four the south or Roha slope. [The eight western Alibag villages are, Rajavadi, Malate, Ramraj, Bhonang, Vasangeon, Taloli, Sudkol, and Kude; The four western Roha, villages are Dapoll, Chavad, Vava-Potga, and Sheuvai,] In the eastern section the forests are somewhat broken and irregular, but roughly the timber on the northern or Nagothna slopes is chiefly evergreen and on the southern or Roha slopes chiefly teak. In the central or northern spur, the timber, both on the eastern or Nagothna and on the western or Alibag slopes, is almost entirely evergreen. The western slopes of this spur are much the most thickly wooded, Mahan being the most beautiful though perhaps not the most valuable forest in the district. In the western section the forests on the north or Alibag slopes are chiefly evergreen, and those on the south or Roha side are teak. The teak in Chavra is as valuable a block of timber as any in the district. The whole Sukeli range is worked departmentally, the produce leaving the district by the Nagothna and Roha creeks.

Roha.

The Roha forest lands may be roughly grouped into a ROHA-HABSAN BLOCK. These forests are chiefly found along two main lines of hills and on some connecting spurs and peaks. The two lines of hills are the low range that runs parallel and close to the left bank of the Roha river, from Rathvad about four miles south of Kolad to Shedsai about five miles west of Roha. The other line of hills is in the west, the range that on the whole running north and south separates Roha from the Habsan. Behind Roha between the Roha range and the Habsan hills there is much rough country with some fairly wooded hill sides. The area of the whole block is estimated at about 17,000 acres. The fifty-seven villages whose forest lands are included in the Roha Habsan block may be arranged into four groups, eighteen of which hold the north slopes of the line of hills to the south of the Roha river, from Rathvad four miles south of Kolad about ten miles west to Roha. [The names are, Rathvad, Bhon, Talavli, Varasgaon, Ambewadi, Pali Bk. and Khurd, Sambhe, Kile, Dhatav, Vashi, Landhar, Borghar, Taleghar, Guravli, Nivi, Varsa, Bhoneshvar, and Roha.] Almost the only produce of the forest lands of these villages is stunted teak. The section, of this range, to the west of Roha, includes the lands of thirteen villages, four to the north, three at the western end, and six. on the southern slopes.' [The names are, on the north, Keladvadi, Tareghar, Khargaon, Are Bk on the west, Are Khurd, Shedshai, Mahalunga; on the south, Chandgaon, Talavli, Pophalvira, Usar, Shenvira, and Phansadi.] The produce of this section of the Roha range is partly teak partly evergreen timber. In the rough hilly ground to the south-west of Roha and between Roha and the Habsan border, ten Government and one alienated village (Vali) have some teak and evergreen forests. [The names are, Pangloli, Birvadi, Kambere, Temghar, Salenda, Bohadghar, Nandap; and further east, Kelgad, Tambdi, Tamanshet, and Vali.] Along the western border of Roha the forest belt includes the lands of thirteen villages, one of which Mumbroli in the south is alienated. [The names are, Karavli, Kokban, Shiloshi, Dahivli, Kannat, Sarsoli, Khandad, Mashadi, Kanti, Gopalvat, Bhalgaon, Kandna Khurd and Bk., and Mumbroh.] Almost the whole of these hill slopes are covered with evergreen forest, which, especially near Bhalgaon in the south, yields large quantities of crooked and diseased timber. The produce goes to Bombay by the Roha and Mandad creeks. Across the Mandad creek, from the south of Roha, the forest lands of four Mangaon villages, Girne, Nauavli, Malate, and Rahathad form the MANDAD BLOCK, a thick well grown forest about 2200 acres in area. As in other parts of the district the teak of the lower slopes gradually passes into upper evergreen forests.

Blocks.

As has already been noticed, the Sahyadri forests, which are chiefly teak on the lower slopes and evergreen timber on the upper sloper and terraces, are too scattered to be divided into blocks, and in the Mahad sub-division, though, there is from fifty-eight to fifty-nine miles of tree land, there is no forest of any size or importance.

The following table shows the chief details of the twelve leading Kolaba forest blocks and ranges:

Kolaba Forest Blocks and Ranges, 1881.

In the central Alibag hills, on the slopes of Mira Dongar and a few other places in Pen and Nagothna, in the deeper Sahyadri ravines, and along the Habsan border in the west are some very rich evergreen forests. But the bulk of the timber is teak coppice. From December to May when the teak branches are bare, almost all the hill sides look brown or misty grey. But daring the rainy and early cold months (June-December), when the teak is  leaf, many uplands and woodlands are a rich deep green, turning in the later months to a russet brown.

The rights of Government over teak, blackwood, and sandalwood on unalienated land, and, over all trees on waste lands, have always been enforced. But there was no special conservancy till 1863, when Kolaba and Ratnagiri were formed into one forest charge and placed under a European officer. From that time the work of marking lands to be kept as forests has been steadily carried on, and, by 1878, about 220 square miles had been set apart. In 1879, before the Forest Act VII, of 1878 came in force, large additions were made by gazetting as forest all available land suited for the growth of trees. These additions have raised the forest area to about 347 miles. The settlement of claims to lands then included as forest is still going on.

Staff.

In 1863; when a forest officer was first appointed, his staff was exceedingly small. Additions of temporary guards were made from time to time, But it was not till 1878 that a full staff was appointed. In that year the Kolaba forest officer was freed from the charge of the Ratnagiri forests, and the Kolaba staff was raised to the following strength. One district forest officer with his clerks and meseengers, six rangers and foresters in charge of ranges, twenty-five round guards in charge of rounds, and 143 beat guards in charge of beats or village clusters. Of the round guards each ranger and forester has one as a clerk, and, of the beat guards each ranger, forester and round guard has one as a messenger. Teak is almost the only revenue-yielding tree; other timber is seldom cut. Kolaba teak is very hard close-grained and strong. But, except in a few of the mixed Sagargad forests where there are some high straight and clean grown trees, the teak is small, crooked, and gnarled. As most of the forests want nursing, care is taken to limit the cuttings to the poorer timber. The outturn is therefore of little value. Most of it is cut in small blocks and sent by boat to Bombay as firewood. The rest finds its way by cart to the Deccan where it is used as roof rafters and house beams. The people of the district meet most of their wants for house building and for field tools from the trees growing on their holdings. The dwellers in forest villages are allowed to take dead wood from the forests for fuel. Outsiders have to pay for the dead wood, taking passes at the forest toll gate, the fee being ¾d. (6 pies) a headload and 1s. (8 as.) a cartload.

Produce.

Minor forest produce, such as fruit, gums and grass, yield but a small revenue. Till 1878 the right to collest myrobalans or hirdas, the berry of the Terminalia chebula, was formed and brought a revenue of £30 (Rs. 300). During 1879 and 1880 the berries have been gathered departmentally and the revenue raised to £70 (Rs. 700). Almost the whole supply, from thirty to thirty-two tons (70-80 khandis) of a total of thirty-four tons (85 khandis), comes from Chikalgaon in east Nagothna. Mango fruit, gum, honey, karvi stalks, bamboos, shembi bark and shikekai, the bean of the Acacia concinna, seldom together yield more than £10 (Rs. 100) a year. Grass is not sold.

Revenue.

During the eleven years ending 1880 the revenue has risen from £2468 (Rs. 24,880) in 1871-72 to £9194 (Rs. 91,940) in 1877-78 and has averaged a little over £5000 (Rs. 50,000). During the same period expenditure has risen from £2561 (Rs. 25,610) in 1872-73 to £7020 (Rs. 70,200) in 1876-77 and has averaged over £4000 (Rs. 40,000). Since the increase of the forest staff in 1878 the charges have been greater than the revenue. The following statement gives the available details:

Kolaba Forests, I869-1880.

Timber Trade.

There are no timber marts in the district. The timber dealers are Brahmans, Gujarat, Vanis, Sonars, Marathas, Maratha, Vanis, Parsis, and Musalmans. Most of them are men of means, and all but a few who come from Poona and Bombay belong to the district. Some of these are wholly engaged in the timber trade, while with others timber dealing is only one branch of their business. The whole work of felling and bringing the wood out of the forests is in the hands of the forest department. The forest officers mark the trees to be cut and engage workmen to fell and stack the timber. The wood is stacked on the skirts of the forest where it was felled and is at once taken either for local use or sent to Bombay. Up to 1880-81, the timber taken from each forest, after being stacked departmentally, was sold by auction in one lot. In this way the whole produce was bought by dealers. As this pressed hardly on the local consumers, an attempt was made in 1880-81 to divide the cuttings into small lots. But the arrangement failed as all the lots were bought by professional dealers. When the wood has been paid for the forest officers exercise no further control. The trade is entirely left in the dealers' hands. The price of timber varies considerably from year to year. None of the Kolaba forests at present yield logs larger than what in the timber trade are known as rafters. Within the past few years the price of rafters has varied from 1s. to 1s. 6d. (as. 8 -12) and of firewood from 8s. 6d. to 11s. 6d. (Rs. 4-4 -Rs. 5-12) a ton (Re. 1-8-Rs. 2 a khandi). On the whole prices have of late been falling.

Tribes.

There are two forest tribes, Thakurs and Kathkaris, whose settlements are almost all in the north and west in Pen, Nagothna, Alibag, and Roha. The Thakurs are a quiet orderly people, who do little harm to the forests except at times by carrying wood-ash or dalhi tillage beyond the bounds of their holdings. The Kathkaris, on the other hand, often cause widespread damage by setting fire to forests when in search of game. They are also much given to stealing wood. The forest workers are chiefly Kunbis, Bhandaris, and Marathas. The men get about 6d. (4 as.) a day, the women 4½d. (3 as.), and the children 2¼d. (1½ as.).

Forest Trees.

The Kolaba forests have a great variety of trees. Teak, sag, Tectona grandis, is at once the most widely spread, the most valuable, and the most useful. Perhaps next to teak comes the Mango, amba, Mangnera indica, which is plentiful both in the Open country and in the hill forests. Blackwood, sisu, Dalbergia latifolia, is not common, being chiefly found in the Chavra forests of Roha. Its valuable timber is used both in house building and for ploughs. Dhavda, Anogeissus latifolia, was at one time very plentiful, but a few years ago large quantities were cut for railway sleepers and very little remains. It yields an useful gum. Ain, Terminalia tomentosa, is a valuable and common tree. Its timber is much used in house building and in making field tools, Its gum is gathered in large quantities and sold by the forest tribes, and its bark is used by Chambhars in tanning and by Kolis in dyeing their fishing nets. This and the jamba, Xylia dolabriformis, sod Kinjal, Terminalia paniculata, are the principal trees in evergreen hill forests. Jamba, Xylia dolabriformis, is almost as much used for building purposes as ain, and would perhaps be quite as much used were it as plentiful. Since conservancy has been introduced large numbers of jamba seedlings have sprung up in the evergreen forests. Kinjal, Terminalis, paniculata, is used for house building. Nana, or Bandara or Bongada, Lagerstroemia paniculata or parviflora, a not very plentiful tree, yields a most useful timber, is used in house building and for field tools, and the leaves are given as medicine to cattle. Hela, Terminalia bellerica, is a large tree, perhaps the largest in the district. The people have a very low estimate of its value as timber and never cut it. But if steeped in water it is believed to be not unsuitable for house building. The fleshy fruit, which is a small grey drupe containing a stone, is used in tanning. From Khair, Acacia catechu, the Kathkaris formerly made catechu, kath. and so damaged the trees that almost all are stunted. The timber of well grown khair trees is valuable and is much used in making cart-wheels. Kumbha, Careya arborea, does not yield good wood, but is sometimes vised in building huts, and its bark is useful for tanning. Apta, Bauhinia racemosa, yields a strong hard and hasting wood, but it never grows big enough for any purpose but burning. Its leaves are used in making native cigarettes, bidis, and on Dasara day (October), under the name of gold, they are handed about as signs of friendship and good-will. Vaang, Kydia calycins, is used only as firewood. Chera, Erinocarpus niminaus, yields a timber which is nretty often used for building huts.

Avla, Phylianthus emblica, bears a nut which is sometimes eaten raw, sometimes pickled, and sometimes used medicinally. When eaten raw it is at first bitter, but its after-flavour is sweet not unlike the flavour of an apple. The leaves are used in tanning. Khavsi, Sterculia colorata, yields timber suited for hut building and for field tools. Chinch, Tamarindus indica, a fairly widespread tree, yields a very hard wood, which is in much demand for rice pestles, carpenters' mallets, and rollers for crushing sugarcane. The fruit is used as a medicine, an article of food, and a spice. The stones are bought by Dhangara who pound them and use them for starch in blanket weaving. Dikamali, Gardenia lucida, yields a gum used in treating sores and skin diseases. Umbar, Ficus glomorata, yields wood used in making rice mortars. The fruit is greedily eaten by cattle, and is palatable but generally full of small black flies. Hedu Adina cordifolia, Kalam or Kadam or Niva Nauclea cadamba, Shivan Gmelina arborea, Koshimb Scleichera trijuga, and Varas Spathodea roxburghii, all yield timber valued for house building and field tools. Shivan, Gmelina arborea, yields a fruit which is eagerly eaten by deer and cattle, and Kadam, Nauclea cadamba, a wood that if a little less heavy would be much valued for gun stocks Ran bhendi, Thespesia lampas, yields a pliant tough wood much used in making drum and other round frames. It is planed, soaked in hot water, s' eamed, and bent to the required shape. Kapur bhendi, Naregamia alata, is a firewood with healing leaves and bark. Of the Satvin, Alstonia rcholaris, the bark is used in medicine as an astringent. Homb, Polyalthia cerasoides, yields good timber, as also does Ramzan, Mimusops hexandra, but the latter is seldom of any size. Vavla, Mimusops elengi, yields a good wood chiefly used for the platforms, machans, on which the; villagers stack their hay and rice straw. Shimat, Odina wodier, and Savar, Bombax malabaricum, both yield a wood which is sometimes used in making rice mortars. Savar, Bombax malabaricum, is very common. Pangara, Erythrina indica, has a soft quick-decaying wood that is little used.

Gorak chinch, Adansonia digitate, grows to an enormous size, but is not put to any use. Hirda, Terminalia chebula, by no means common in the Kolaba forests, would probably yield as good timber as its congeners, Ain, Terminalia tomentosa, and Kinjal, Terminalia paniculata, but it is never used for timber as its nut, the myrobalan, is of much value in tanning. [As already noticed, almost the whole stock of Kolaba myrobalans comes from Chikalgaon a village to the east of Nagothna. The natural place of export for Chikalgaon myrobalans is Chaul. And it seems probable that Chebula, in the botanical name Terminalia chebula, is chevuli that is belonging to Chevul, the proper form of the present word Chaul.] The fruit of the Bibva, Semecarpus anacardium, sometimes called the Marking Nut Tree, is eaten, and the nut's black juice is used as a counter-irritant. Rita, Sapindus emarginatus, is sometimes used as timber, but is more valuable for its nuts which the people use instead of soap. Charbor, Bauhinia vahlii, has an edible fruit. The leaves of the Palas. Butea frondosa, are used as platters; it yields a first class gum, and ropes are made of its roots. The Karpia, Cupania canescons, and Shendri, Rottlera tinctoria, yield good walking sticks, and when large enough useful timber. The wood of the Shiras, Albizzia lebbek, is used for carts and field tools. Kinai, Albizzia procera, is used only as firewood, and Saldol, Sterculia urens, a large white barked tree, conspicuous from its colour and fantastic shape, is of no use. Jambkul, Eugenia jambolana, yields the well known jambhul fruit, which is eaten raw, preserved, and pickled. The wood is a useful timber. The leaves of the Kharvat, Ficas asperrima, which grows in walls and wells are used instead of sand paper. Kanchan, Bauhinia purpurea, highly ornamental when in bloom, is used only as firewood. Kada, Holarrhena antidysenterica, Kala-kuda, Wrightia tinctoria, and Bhor kuda, Wrightia speciosa. are all of no use except as fuel. The wood of the Karanj, Pongamia glabra, is not used, but its seeds yield a good burning oil. The pods of the Bhaya, Cassia fistula, called by Europeans the Indian Laburnum, are used as a purgative, and the wood is burnt as firewood. Aturni, Flacourtia ramontchii, is generally very small and used only for fuel. When of sufficient size it yields good timber. The wood of the Temburni, Diospyros melaaoxylon, is very hard and good and is used in cart-building.

Nirgud, or ningdi, Vitex bicolor, makes a good hedge plant and yields excellent walking sticks. The fruit of the Bhor, Zizyphus jujuba, is eaten and its thorny branches are used for hedging. The leaves and the bark of the Rameta, Lasiosiphon eriocephalus, are thrown into water to poison fish. Jasundi, Saraca indica, yields a good and much used timber. Babhul, Acacia arabica, of which there is very little in the district, is used now and then in cart building. Asana Briedelia retusa, Ud Ailanthus malabarica, and Kharsing Stereospernum xylocarpum, yield good timber. Bibla, Pterocarpus marsupium, yields good timber; its bark is used in medicine, and its red juice is the kino gum of commerce. The wood of Dhaman, Grewia tilioefolia, like lancewood in its length of grain and pliancy, is much used in hut building. The fruit of the Alu, Vangueria spirosa, a very small tree, is eaten and the wood burnt. The fruit of the kumbli, Gnetum seandens, and Gehela, Randia dumetorum, are used to poison fish; their wood is burnt as fuel. Payri Ficus cordifolia, Nandruk Ficus retusa, and the Banyan or Vad Ficus bengalensis, are used as firewood. When big enough the light and strong air roots of the banyan are much prised for lateen sail yards. Ranphanas, Artocarpus hirsuta, is used as timber, while its congener, Phanas, Artocarpus integrifolium, is grown for its fruit, the celebrated Jack or Indian bread-fruit. Karmbel, Dillenia indica, yields good timber and its large leaves are used as platters. Ambada Spondias mangifera, is used only as firewood. Goldada, Sterculia guttata, yields a wood used in hut building. Pimpal, Ficus religiosa, is held in great honour, and near villages is often surrounded by a masonry plinth. Bhokad Cordia myxa, Kajra Strichnos nuxvomica, and Dhavli Woodfordia floribunda are used as firewood; the flowers of the last yield a red dye. The wood of the Rakt chandan, Pterocarpus santalinus, is used as a medicine. The fruit of the Karanda, Carissa karandas, is gathered in great quantities and largely eaten by almost all classes. Kevni Helicteres isora, Ukshi Calycopteris floribunda, Bakali Ixora parviflora, and Gometi Zehneria umbellata, are used as firewood. The wood of the Tamana, Lagerst raemia reginse, which is made into canoes on the Malabar coast, is not used except as fuel. It grows along streams and is beautiful when in bloom. Moha or Mahuda, Bassia latifolia, yields flowers from which liquor is occasionally made. Sajeri Bocagea dalzellii and Pasi Dalbergia paniculata are used only for firewood. Dahivad Cordia wallichii, and Goinda Diospyros goinda, are used in hut and cowshed building.

Salt March Trees.

The chief trees and bushes found in salt marshes are the Mangrove, Tivar Sonneratia acida, Khajen, Lon, and Khajkuiri. All of these are used as fuel.

Creepers.

Of creepers and shrubs, Phalsi Grewia asiatica, Kusar Jasminium latifolium, Kaneri Neriumodorum, and Garudvel Entada scandens, are used as firewood. The leaves of Rantur Atylosia lawii, and Matisul Leonotis nepetifolia are used medicinally; the root of Sapsan, Aristolochia indica, is an antidote to snake-bite. Garambi, Margul, Guyer, Kajur, Dhavshira, Sherni, Kapurvel, and Torni yield an edible fruit. Kavli, Bendri, Amti, Ghosia, Ghosetur, Palkunda, Thatvad, Manmodi, Ghotia, Upatsadi, Gangavni, Nanden, Pingvi yield fruit from which oil is pressed; and the leaves of the Kakran and Mhavli are used as platters. The nut of the Shikakai, Acacia concinna, is used instead of soap.

Besides the trees mentioned above there are many, some of them of much value, whose botanical names have not been ascertained. Of these the chief are, Dhavan which yields a very strong and useful timber; Udali from the bark of which good rope is made; Votrik used as timber; Ragat rohida and Sandruk whose bark is applied to broken limbs and bones; Sugaran and Chapa sugaran whose leaves and bark are used medicinally; Kuduk and Ran khimas whose wood is used by the poor in building their huts; Pandri, Hasoli, and Phatkari, which yield excellent walking sticks; Bhutia used for firewood; Ran undi for timber; Phinav whose bark yields a decoction used in killing cattle ticks; Gande, umbar, Pangli, Shen-khair, Avsi, Apti, and Ashi used for firewood. Chandavda used as timber; a second tree of the name of Kharshi used as firewood; Ranphuti used for firewood; Tembri the leaves of which are used in making native cigars; Ran chapa and Pandra chapa, both used as timber; Songhol and Barikghol whose leaves are a favourite fodder; Kharghol, Datri, Tetu, Kolambi, Pendri, Kela, Kadu Nimb, Shekti, Scitan, all used for firewood; Ragatthol whose wood is used as timber and its bark as a medicine; Nagkuda whose roots are used as a medicine; Lavsat used as timber; Tavsi, Ambani, Asat, Renbibi, Bhanpatri, Nivar, Ranlechi, Morchuki, Atavda, Shena, Chapda, Punvas, Chikli, Alshi, Gulambri, Asani, Asogi, Kachori, selavri, Nariel, Mariel, Ranparvati, Kandal, Bhokide, Tambeti, and Padii, all used as firewood, Turi whose leaves are used medicinally; Hadsandan whose bark is applied to broken bones; Dudki, Rahat Kinjal, Kajri, Zokhi, Bhat Jambul, and Huda, all used ass timber; Karav, Tet Karav, and Dinda, the stalks of which are used for the walls of huts; Machel used as a vegetable; Shembi whose bark is much used in tanning; Chikada and Peda, the gum of both of which is used to poison fish and their charcoal for making gunpowder: and Bhormala, Shembadi, Chinch Karav, Katekavdi, Rahat Dalambi, and Bhor Jambul, which are used for firewood. Besides these trees, two or three kinds of cactus, prickly pear, Nivadung, Opuntia vulgaris, and one or two other bushes are sometimes used as firewood.

Liquor-yielding Trees.

Except [Contributed by Mr. R. Courtenay, C. S.] Moha, Bassia latifolia, which is found in small numbers in Pen and whose flowers are occasionally used in making liquor, the liquor-bearing trees are all palms. They are of three varieties, the Cocoa palm mad Cocos nucifera, the Palmyra tad Borassus flabelliformis, and the Wild Thick-stemmed Palm bherli-mad Caryota urens. Of these, cocoa palms number 118,774, all but sixty-three of them in Alibag, [Forty in Mahad, thirteen in Pen, and ten in Nagothna.] of which 11,130 were tapped in 1878-70, palmyra palms number 6535, 5334 in Alibag, 1101 in Pen and 100 in Nagothna, of which in 1878-79, 1153 in Alibag were tapped; and wild big-stemmed palms number 21,672, 9066 in Roha, 7500 in Nagothna, 4169 in Mangaon, 437 in Pen, 350 in Alibag, and 150 in Mahad, of which in 1878-79 about 5000 were tapped. [The details were: Roha 3334, Nagothna 900. Mangaon about 400, Mahad 150, Pen 108, Alibag 103.]

Of these three trees the cocoa palm is the most important. Though found almost solely in Alibag, and in Alibag only along the west coast in a belt about twenty-three miles long and generally not more than half a mile broad, the moist climate, sandy soil, brackish water, and abundance of fish manure make its growth so vigorous that the yield of juice is much in excess of the wants of the district. The trees are grown in walled or hedged enclosures sometimes entirely given to cocoanut palms, in other cases partly planted with mangoes, jack, betelnut, and other fruit trees. Every garden has one or two wells from which the trees are watered by a Persian wheel. In starting a cocoanut garden a bed is prepared, and, in it, at the beginning of the rainy season, from twenty to forty large ripe unhusked nuts are planted two feet deep. The bed is kept soaked with water and after from three to six months the nut begins to sprout. The seedlings are left undisturbed for two years. They are then, at the beginning of the rains, planted in sandy soil in rows about eighteen feet apart and with a distance of about fifteen feet between the plants. For about a foot and a hall round each plant the ground is hollowed three or four inches deep, and during the dry months the plants are watered daily or once in two days, and, once or twice in the year, enriched with fish manure or with a mixture of salt and nachni. When nine years old the trees begin to yield nuts twice a year and sometimes thrice, 120 nuts being the yearly average yield from each tree. The trees are then ready to be tapped. Each cocoa palm, when ready for tapping, is estimated to represent an average outlay of about 18s. (Rs. 9). [The details are as follows: The monthly wage of the labourer who waters a garden of 100 trees is 10s. (Rs. 5), and the monthly keep of the bullock who works the water-wheel is roughly about 8s. (Rs. 4) The yearly cost of watering a garden of 100 trees is therefore roughly about £10 16s. (Rs. 108), that is about 2s. 2d. (Re. 1-1¼ annas) on each tree. This gives, a little above 17s.' (Rs. 8½) as the outlay on each tree till it is fit for tapping, or with the cost of the fish manure a total of 18s. (Rs. 9).]

The cocoanut gardens are generally owned by high caste Hindus, who let the trees to some rich Bhandari who has agreed to supply the owner of the liquor shops with fermented or distilled juice. The Bhandari pays the owner of the garden 2s. (Re. 1) a month for every three trees. If he cannot do the work himself he employs another Bhandari to tap the trees, paying him 12s. (Rs. 6) a month for every fifteen trees. Thus the crude juice of fifteen trees costs the Bhandari about £1.2s. (Rs. 11) a month, or 1s. 6d. (annas 12) for each tree. A tree yields on an average about 4 ¹/₅ pints (1¾ shers) of juice a day or 10½ imperial gallons (52½ shers) a month. The juice is seldom sold raw. Most of it is distilled by the Bhandari and sold by him to the liquor shopkeeper. To help him in distilling, the Bhandari generally engages another Bhandari, paying him according to the amount of spirit he turns out. The average daily outturn is estimated at from thirteen to fifteen gallons (65 - 75 shers) and the average monthly pay at 12s. (Rs. 6). According to this estimate the monthly charge for distilling the juice of one tree is about 2d. (1¼ as.). The cost of fuel is about 6d. (4 as.) more or about 8d. (5¼ as.) in all. Distilling lowers the quantity of liquor by one-half, that is, it reduces the average monthly outturn of each tree from 10½ to 5¼ gallons (52½-26¼ shers)

Besides the wages of the distiller and the cost of fuel the Bhandari has to make good to the liquor shopkeeper part of the tapping-tax he had paid to Government. Government levies from the liquor-shopkeepers £60 (Rs. 600) a year for every hundred trees tapped. Three-fourths of this the liquor shopkeeper pays; the remaining fourth he recovers from the Bhandari who supplies the liquor. The Bhandari's share of the tax amounts to £15 (Rs. 150) on one hundred trees for one year, that is, a monthly charge of £1.5s. (Rs. 12½) on the 100 trees, or on each tree a monthly tax of 3d. (2 as.).

The average charges met by the Bhandari on each tree are therefore, rent about 8d. (5¼- as.), tapping about 10d. (7 as.), distilling about 8d. (5¼ as.), and tax 3d. (2 as.), or a total of about 2s. 5d. (Re. 1-3-3). In return for this outlay the Bhandari draws from each tree an average yield of about 5 ³/₁₀ gallons (26½ shers) of distilled juice. Allowing 3 ³/₅ pints (1½ shers) for wastage and leakage there are left five gallons (25 shers) worth about 3s. (Re. 1-8). This leaves him a net profit on the produce of each tree of about 7d. (4½ as.) a month. A Bhandari, with a grove of from 200 or 300 cocoa palms, has a fairly good profit, and if he himself or the members of his family do the tapping and distilling their profits are considerable, A tree of the best type, with good soil and plentiful water, has never to be left fallow during the period it is tapped. Other trees are generally allowed one year's rest in four or five. After it ceases to be tapped a cocoa-palm lives, as a rule, for about twelve years. In 1878-79, of a total of 118,774 cocoa-palms, 11,130 or 9.3 per cent were tapped. Since then, on account of the rise from 8s. to 10s. (Rs. 4-Rs. 5) in the monthly rent for fifteen trees, the number of tapped palms is believed to have fallen to about 5000 trees. [The landholders raised the rents of trees owing to the small number of trees that were taken for tapping.] This increase in the tree-tax has greatly lessened the consumption of liquor.

The Palmyra or Brab Palm, tad, Borassus flabelliformis, is found only in the northern sub-divisions of Pen and Alibag, which have a total of 6535 trees. With few exceptions these palms are self-sown and no care is taken of them, except that a few thorns are sometimes set round seedlings to keep cattle away. The tree is full grown at twenty-five or thirty years. It is tapped for about thirty years more, and is said to live for about forty years after it has grown too old to be tapped. Both the male and female trees are tapped. The spathe, pogi, of the male tree is called londi. Vigorous trees throw out from three to five spathes a year, some in November, sargacha hangam, and the rest in February, bhar kala. Trees that are not in full vigour throw out spathes in November only. The spathe is gently bruised with a piece of wood, the bruised parts bound together, a slice is cut off the point of the spathe by the drawer's sharp and Broad-bladed knife, aut, and a pot is tied over the end to catch the juice. The tree is then tapped twice a day, a little slice being cat off the end of the spathe at each tapping. Under this process each snathe lasts according to its length from a month to a month and a half. The tapping season continues from October to May. The drawer is paid at the rate of 1s. (as. 8) a month for each tree. Each tree yields about 3 ³/₅ pints (1½ shers) a day, which at 5/16d. the pint (6 pies the sher) is worth 1⅛d. (9 pies) or 2s. 9¾d. (Re. 1-6-6) a month. Taking five months as the average time during which tapping lasts, the approximate gross profits are 14s. (Rs. 7). Deducting from this 6s. (Rs. 3) paid to Government and 5s. (Rs. 2-8) to the Bhandari, the net profit on each tree is about 3s. (Re, 1-8), This was the state of affairs before 1879-80 when the tree-tax was raised to 12s. (Rs. 6). Since this change the tapping of palmyra trees has ceased except in Alibag. Palmyra juice can be distilled, but tips is never done as the supply of cocoa-palm liquor is in excess of the demand.

The Wild Thick-stemmed Palm, bherli mad, [Bherli, from bher a pot belly, seems to mean thick-seemed. It is also called Sura Mud, or the liquor-palm, because it yields no nuts.] Caryota urens, has a total of 21,672 trees, of which about 5000 or one-quarter of the whole were tapped in 1878. It is almost entirely a forest tree and no trouble is taken in growing it. These trees are tapped when they are from fifteen to twenty-five years old. Besides bruising and binding it, the spathe, which is tailed kote, is heated to make the juice flow. Every three or four days a white cottony substance called kaph, which forms in the centre of the spathe, is removed. The stem of the tree is so soft that notches cannot be cut, and the, tapper climbs by the help of branch's tied to the trurk. Tapping goes on for eight months in the year. It is stopped during the rainy season (June-October), because the tree becomes slippery and the spathe cannot be heated. The trees are not allowed a rest but are tapped until they are exhausted. In good ground they last for ten years and in poor soil for four or five. Alter this they are useless. In yield or in the value of the juice the big-tranked palm differs little from the palmyra. Since 1879, when the tree-tax was raised from 1s. 6d. to 6s. (as. 12-Rs. 3), the number of trees tapped has greatly fallen.

Field Trees.

In 1857, on the introduction of the revenue survey, Government abandoned their right to trees in occupied land except teak and blackwood. Since then most trees in occupied numbers have been cut. Though the fields are somewhat bare, most village sites are well shaded chiefly by the mango Mangifera indica, karanj Pongamia glabra, tamarind Tamarindus indica, bhendi Thespesia populnea, pangara Erythrina indica, and on the coast by the cocoa-palm, Cocos nucifera. With these trees bamboos of three kinds, the velu Bambusa arundinacea, the kallak Bambusa vulgaris, and occasionally the basa, Dendrocalamus strictus, are often mixed. In the north of the district the palmyra, Borassus flabelliformis, and the babhul Acacia arabica, are sometimes found.

The banyan, mango kemraj nandruk and payri, are the trees best suited for roadside planting. Besides these the suru, Casuarina equasitifolia, if properly cared for and surrounded by a fence, grows freely. Babhuls sown along the roads to the Revas and Dharamtar ferries, on the Nagothna creek, have grown well.