ALIBAG.

Aliba'g, the north-west sub-division of the district, is bounded on the north and west by the sea, on the south by the Habsan or Janjira, the Kundalika river and Roha, and on the east by the Amba river and Nagothna. Its area is 194 square miles, its (1881) population 76,138 or 392 to the square mile, and its (1880) realizable land revenue £18,503 (Rs. l,85,030).

Area.

Of the total area of 194 square miles, one is occupied by the lands of alienated villages. The remainder, according to the revenue survey, contains 78,106 acres or 65.09 per cent of arable; 18,808 acres or 15.68 per cent of unarable; 1743 acres or 1.4 per cent of grass or kuran ; 9626 acres or 8.02 per cent under forest; and 11,192 acres or 9.3 per cent of village sites, roads, rivers and streams. From the 78,106 acres of arable land 517 are to be taken on account of alienated lands in Government villages. Of the balance of 77,589 acres, the actual area of arable Government land, 38,376 acres or 49.1 per cent, were in 1880-81 under tillage.

Aspect

Alibag is broken by an irregular range of hills which runs roughly north and south five or six miles inland. The west coast is fringed by palm gardens and orchards, and along most of the east a low bare rice flat borders the Amba river. In the west behind the palms is a stretch of rice land, and on both west and east, beyond the rice land, the ground breaks in knolls and mounds which rise to the outlying spurs of the central range of hills.

Climate.

On the coast the climate is cooler than in other parts of the district. In the strip of salt rice land that borders' the Amba river, the temperature in the hot season is much higher as the central range of hills cuts off the western sea breeze. During the twenty-two years ending 1881 the rainfall at Alibag has varied from 40.36 inches in 1871 to 144.87 inches in 1878, and averaged 74.60 inches. The details are:

Alibag Rainfall, 1860-1881.

Water.

Except in the eastern salt land villages where in the hot months (March-May) there is a, scarcity of water, the water-supply is sufficient. Besides the Amba which separates Alibag from Pen in the east and the Kundalika which separates Alibag from Roha in the south, there are five smaller streams. These streams are: the Chondi with a northerly course of about six miles falling into the sea at Agarsure; the Suhapur with a north-east course of about eight miles falling into the Amba live miles below Dharamtar; the Khandale falling into the sea at Varsole, and the Ramraj with a westerly course of about six, and the Bale with a southerly course of about eight miles, both joining the Kundalika creek at Bhonang four miles above Cheul. Besides these, there were in 1881-82, 2328 wells, eighteen dams, 158 ponds, and 128 streams and springs.

Soil.

The soil which is generally fertile is of three varieties. The first comprises the tract of shell-sand near the beach, which is suited for the growth of the cocoa-palm. The second comprises red soils with a large mixture of shell-sand. The third comprises dark red soils, having little or no shell-sand. In the salt rice land near the Amba the soil which is mostly of a very dark brown is strongly charged with salt. Near the hills the soil is lighter in colour, more friable, and from the effect of hill drainage freer from salt. The garden tillage is confined to the west.

Holdings, 1881-82.

In 1881-82, 12,497 holdings or khatas were recorded with an average area of 4| acres and an average rental of £1 8½s. (Rs. 14¼). If equally divided among the agricultural population these holdings would represent an allotment of 3⅝ acres at a yearly rent of £1 1s. 11d. (Rs. 10-15-4). If distributed among the whole population of the sub-division the share to each would amount to ¾ of an acre and the incidence of the land tax to 4s. 8d. (Rs. 2-5-4).

Rental, 1878-79.

The survey rates were fixed in 1857-58 for thirty years. The 58,594 occupied acres, at average acre rates of 8s. 6d. (Rs. 4¼) for dry crop, 11s. 3⅜ d. (Rs. 5-10-3) for garden land, and 8s. 9d. (Rs. 4-6) for rice, yielded £17,761 12s. (Rs. 1,77,616). The remaining 1506 acres of arable waste were rated at £197 16s. (Rs. 1978) and alienations at £1492 2s. (Rs. 14,921). Deducting alienations £1492 ,2s. (Rs. 14,921), and adding quit-rents £707 4s. (Rs. 7072) and grass lands £35 18s. (Rs. 359), the total rental of the 198 villages amounted to £18,702 10s. (Rs. 1,87,025). The following statement gives the details:

Alibag Rent Roll, 1878-79.

According to the 1881-82 returns 76,138 people owned 15,361 houses, 4822 ploughs, 1963 carts, 7400 bullocks, 4961 cows, 7248 buffaloes, 162 horses, 2134 sheep and goats, and 31 asses.

Produce, 1880-81.

In 1880-81 of 58,811 acres, the total area of occupied land, 20,435 or 34.74 per cent were fallow or under grass. Of the remaining 38,376 acres, 1829 were twice cropped. Of the 40,205 acres under actual tillage grain crops occupied 35,614 acres or 8858 per cent, 34,329 of them under rice bhat Oryza sativa, 900 under nachni Eleusine coracana, 366 under chenna vari Panicum miliare, and 19 under kodra Paspalum scrobiculatum. Pulses occupied 1702 acres or 423 per cent, 29 of them under gram harbhara Cicer arietinum, 21 under mug Phaseolus radiatus, 14 under tur Cajanus indicus, 6 under udid Phaseoius mungo, and 1632 under other pulses. Oilseeds occupied 198 acres or 0.49 per cent, two of them under gingelly seed til Sesamum indicum, and 196 under other oilseeds. Fibres occupied 34 acres or 0.08 per cent, all of them under brown hemp ambadi Hibiscus cannabinus. Miscellaneous crops occupied 2657 acres or 6.60 per cent, 39 of them under sugarcane us Saccharum officinarum, and the remaining 2618 under various vegetables and fruits.

People, 1881.

The 1881 population returns show, of 76,138 people 72,715 or 95.50 per cent Hindus; 2119 or 2.78 per cent Musalmans; 1018 or 1.33 per cent Beni-Israels; 265 or 034 per cent Christians; and 21 Parsis. The details of the Hindu castes are: 5854 Brahmans; 864 Kayasth Prabhus and 41 Patane Prabhus, writers; 919 Vanis, 239 Jains, 22 Bhansalis, 13 Lingayats, and 7 Bhatias, merchants and traders; 19,177 Agris, 11,145 Malis, and 9671 Kunbis, husbandmen; 1295 Sonars, gold and silversmiths; 719 Kumbhars, potters; 389 Kasars and Tambats, copper smiths and lac bracelet sellers; 309 Buruds, basket makers', 306 Shimpis, tailors; 284 Sutars, carpenters [The Sutars of the district belong to different classes, Malis, Marathas, Beni-Israels, and Musalmans.]; 123 Salis, weavers; 197 Lohars, blacksmiths; 121 Telis, oilmen; 98 Beldars, stone masons; 89 Kataris, wood-turners; 77 Khatris, weavers; 12 Patharvats, stone masons and carvers; 2 Jingars, saddlers; 2 Koshtis, weavers; 210 Guravs, musicians; 1 Bhat, bard; 579 Nhavis, barbers; 195 Parits, washermen; 483 Dhangars, shepherds; 467 Gavlis, milk sellers; 8946 Kolis, 167 Bhois, 104 Machis and 39 Kharvis, fishers and sailors; 5255 Bhandaris, palm-juice drawers; 188 Kalans, labourers; 50 Pardeshis, messengers; 43 Shindes, husbandmen; 2 Khatiks, butchers; 1040 Kathkaris, 172 Vadars, 142 Thakurs, and 12 Vanjaris, unsettled tribes; 1080 Chambhars, leather workers; 1154 Mhars and 77 Mangs, village servants; 8 Bhangis, scavengers; 106 Gosavis, 51 Jangams, 53 Gondhalis, 47 Joshis, 40 Bairagis, 10 Bharadis, 8 Panguls, 8 Kolhatis, and 3 Chitrakatis, beggars.

PEN.

Pen, in the north-east corner of the district including the petty division of Nagothna, is bounded on the north by Panveland karjat in Thana, on the east by Poona and the Pant Sachiv's territory, on the south by Roha, and on the west by Alibag. Its area is 290 square miles; its (1881) population 70,200 or 242 to the square mile; and its (1880) realizable land revenue £15,524 (Rs. 1,55,240).

Area.

Of 290 square miles, the area surveyed in detail, nearly two-thirds of a square mile are occupied by the lands of alienated villages. The remainder, according to the revenue survey, contains 76,970 acres or 48.4 per cent of arable; 40,346 acres or 26.3 per cent of unarable; 2749 acres or 1.7 per cent of grass or kuran ; 17,378 acres or 10.9 per cent of forest; and 20,219 acres or 12.7 per cent of village sites, roads, rivers, and streams. From the 76,970 acres of arable land 416 acres have to be taken on account of alienated land in Government villages. Of the balance of 76,554 acres the actual area of arable Government land, 41,259 acres or 3.6 per cent, were in 1880-81 under tillage.

Aspect.

In the north near, the mouth of the Amba, Pen rises slowly from slimy mangrove swamps into lands about high-tide level bare and flat and given to salt pans or reclaimed as rice fields. In the northeast there are many bare rocky spurs and in the south the country is rough with flat-topped hills well-wooded in places but much of them given to cattle grazing and to the growth of hill grains.

Climate.

The climate though considerably hotter than Alibag is generally healthy. During the twenty-two years ending 1881 the rainfall at Pen averaged 10046 inches. The details are:

Pen Rainfall, 1860-1881.

Water.

The chief river is the Amba. Besides the Amba there are the Nigdi and the Vasi, and three nameless streams, all flowing into the Amba creek. The water of the Amba is sweet and drinkable from June till September. After September it becomes saltish owing to the drying of the river and to the passage of the tide water to Bhalsai. In the salt marsh lands in the west there is little fresh water, and in the inland parts the supply generally runs short during the hot months. The people in some places have to fetch their drinking water from a distance of five or six miles. In 1881-82 there were 508 wells, two dams, 146 ponds, and 223 streams and springs.

Soil.

The chief varieties of soil are reddish and black. The reddish is the commoner, being found in most of the inland, parts. The hollows and rice flats are mostly black. A large area of tidal swamp is used as salt pans.

Holdings, 1881-82.

In 1881-82, 7471 holdings or khatas were recorded with an average area of9 ⁷/10 acres and average rental of £1 19s. 2d. (Rs. 19-9-4). If equally divided among the agricultural population, these holdings would represent an allotment of four acres at a yearly rent of 16s. 2d. (Rs. 8-1-4). Distributed among the whole population of the sub-division, the share to each would amount to 1 ¹/40 acres and the incidence of the land tax to 4s. 2d. (Rs. 2-1-4).

Rental, 1878-79.

The survey rates were fixed in 1858 for thirty years. The 64,938 occupied acres, at average acre rates of 7s. 9?d. (Rs. 3-14-3) for rice, 6s. 2¾d. (Rs. 3-1-10) for garden land, and 4½d. (annas 3) for upland, yielded £13,416 12s. (Rs. 1,34,166). The remaining 2698 acres of arable waste were rated at £101 12s. (Rs.1016) and alienations at £1676 18s. (Rs. 16,769). Deducting alienations £1676 18s. (Rs. 16,769), and adding quit-rents £1208 4s. (Rs. 12,082) and grass lands £134 10s. (Rs.1345), the total rental of the 202 villages amounted to £14,860 18s. (Rs. 1,48,609). The following statement gives the details:

Pen Rent Roll, 1878-79.

Stock, 1881-82.

According to the 1881 returns 70,200 people owned 12,960 houses, 4490 ploughs, 308 carts, 6687 bullocks, 5691 cows, 7654 buffaloes, 44 horses,2288 sheep and goats, and 3 asses.

Produce, 1880-81

In 1880-81, of 64,946 acres, the total area of occupied land, 23,687 or 36.47 per cent were fallow or under grass. Of the remaining 41,259 acres 325 were twice cropped. Of the 41,584 acres under actual tillage grain crops occupied 40,613 acres or 97.66 per cent, 32,563 of them under rice bhat Oryza sativa, 4448 under nachni Eleusine coracana, 3596 under chenna vari Panicum miliare, and 6 under kodra Paspalum scrobiculatum. Pulses occupied 595 acres or 143 per cent, 242 of them under udid Phaseolus mungo, 50 under tur Cajanus indicus, 36 under mug Phaseolus radiatus, 1 under gram harbhara Cicer arietinum, 1 under kulith Dolichos biflorus, and 265 under other pulses. Oilseeds occupied 311 acres or 074 per cent all of them under gingelly seed til Sesamum indicum. Fibres occupied 26 acres or 006 per cent, 25 of them under cotton kapus Gossypium herbaceum, and 1 under brown hemp ambadi Hibiscus can abinus. Miscellaneous crops occupied 39 acres, or 0.09 per cent, 4 of them under sugarcane us Saccharum officinarum, and the remaining 35 under various vegetables and fruits.

People, 1881

The 1881 population returns show, of 70,200 people 67,332 or 95.91 per cent Hindus; 2345 or 3.34 per cent Musalmans; 507 or 0.72 per cent Beni-Israels; 10 Christians; and 6 Parsis. The details of the Hindu castes are: 2642 Brahmans; 1044 Kayasth prabhus, writers; 662 Jains, 514 Vanis, 38 Lingayats, 10 Komtis, and 4 Bhatias, merchants and traders; 20,604 Agris, 19,596 Kunbis, and 87 Malis, husbandmen; 657 Sonars, gold and silver smiths; 495 Sutars, carpenters; 421 Kataris, wood turners; 421 Kumbhars, potters; 349 Kasars and Tambats, copper smiths and lac bracelet sellers; 163 Buruds, basket makers; 161 Beldars, stone masons; 122 Shimpis,tailors; 98 Lohars, blacksmiths; 89 Telis, oilmen; 42 Raulis, cotton tape makers; 9 Khatris, weavers; 7 Patharvats, stone masons and carvers; 4 Rangaris, dyers; 142 Guravs and 5 Ghadsis, musicians; 6 Bhats, bards; 372 Nhavis, barbers; 124 Parits, washermen; 1060 Dhangars, shepherds; 619 Gavlis, milk sellers; 1639 Kolis and 39 Bhois, fishers and sailors; 948 Kalans, labourers; 151 Bhandaris, palm juice drawers; 63 Pardeshis, messengers; 8 Kamathis, labourers; 6 Khatiks, butchers; 5 Kalals, distillers; 4924 Kathkaris, 3307 Thakurs, 339 Vanjaris, 21 Vadars, and 5 Bhils, unsettled tribes; 868 Chambhars, leather workers; 3732 Mhars and 53 Mangs, village servants; 16 Bhangis, scavengers; 266 Jangams, 152 Gosavis, 105 Joshis, 100 Gondhalis, and 18 Kolhatis, beggars.

ROHA.

Roha is bounded on the north by Alibag and Pen, on the east by the Pant Sachiv's territory, on the south by Mangaon, and on the west by the Habsan or Janjira. Its area is 200 square miles, its (1881) population 44,835 or 224 to the square mile, and its (1880-81) realizable land revenue £10,719 (Rs. 1,07,190).

Area.

Of 200 square miles, the area surveyed in detail, a little above half a square mile is occupied by the lands of alienated villages. The remainder, according to the revenue survey, contains 61,166 acres or 49.5 per cent of arable; 12,007 acres or 9.89 per cent of unarable; 402 acres or 0.3 per cent of grass or kuran ; 29,469 acres or 23.8 per cent of forest reserves; and 19,902 acres or 16.1 per cent of village sites, roads, and rivers. From the 61,166 acres of arable, land, 223 have to be taken on account of alienated land in Government villages. Of the balance of 60,943 acres the actual area of arable Government land, 41,771 acres or 68.2 per cent, were under tillage in 1880-81.

Aspect.

Roha is for the most part hilly, the hills in the north near the Kundalika river being wooded and fringed by salt marsh and rich rice lands. To the north and west of the Mandad river, in the south and south-west, the slopes and tops, of the ranges that border Janjira are specially well watered and densely wooded. The less rugged lands in the centre are in places broken by isolated fortified peaks. The rich valley of the Kundalika passes east from Roha about eight miles to Kolad where the rice lands are broken by picturesque spurs of rocky hills.

Climate.

The eastern parts of Roha are much cut off from the sea breeze, but towards the close of the hot-weather months parts of the west and south-west are almost as pleasant as Alibag. During the twenty-two years ending 1881 the rainfall at Roha has averaged 115.77 inches. The details are:

Roha Rainfall, 1860-1881.

Water.

The chief river is the Kundalika. Besides the Kundalika there are the Achabag, the Ganga near Roha, and the Salunkhedi, all falling into the Kundalika creek. The rice lands are very well watered during the rainy season, but in the cold and hot months the supply of drinking water is defective. In 1881-82 there were 205 wells, two dams, forty-five ponds, and 108 streams and springs.

Soil.

In the south and east on the hill slopes and uplands the soil is a mixture of earth and broken trap or muram. In the level parts the soil varies from reddish to yellow or black. It is in places very fertile and suited both for early and for late crops.

Holdings, 1881-82.

In 1881-82, 6343 holdings or khatas were recorded with an average area of 8½ acres and an average rental of £1 13s. (Rs.16½). If equally divided among the agricultural population, these holdings would represent an allotment of 5 ¹/20 acres at a yearly rent of 19s. 6d. (Rs. 9¾). Distributed among the whole population the share to each would amount to 1¹/5 acres, and the incidence of the land tax to 4s. 8d. (Rs. 2-5-4).

Rental, 1878-79.

The survey rates were fixed in 1863 for thirty years. The 54,232 occupied acres, at average acre rates of 11s. ?d (Rs. 5-8-3) for rice land, 7s. 8?d. (Rs. 3-13-9) for garden land, and 4¾d. (3 annas 2pies) for uplands, yielded £10,479 6s. (Rs. 1,04,793). The remaining 375 acres of arable waste were rated at £47 10s. (Rs. 475) and alienations at £431 16s. (Rs. 4318). Deducting alienations £431 16s. (Rs. 4318), and adding quit-rents £207 (Rs. 2070) and grass lands £48 (Rs. 480), the total rental of the 151 villages amounted to £10,781 16s. (Rs. 1,07,818). The following statement gives the details:

Roha Rent Roll, 1878-79.

According to the 1881-82 returns 44,835 people owned 8370 houses, 4669 ploughs, 247 carts, 6968 bullocks, 5653 cows, 4815 buffaloes, 87 horses, 2293 sheep and goats, and 7 asses.

Produce, 1880-81.

In 1880-81 of 58,781 acres, the total area of occupied land, 17,010 or.28.93 per cent were fallow or under grass. Of the remaining 41,771 acres 955 were twice cropped. Of the 42,726 acres under actual tillage grain crops occupied 39,233 acres or 91.82 per cent, 18,179 of them under rice bhat Oryza sativa, 9122 under nachni Eleusine coracana, 8580 under chenna vari Panicum miliare, 3351 under kodra Paspalum scrobiculatum, and 1 under wheat gahu Triticum sestivum. Pulses occupied 3179 acres or 7.44 per cent, 1068 of them under udid Phaseolus mungo, 426 under mug Phaseolus radiatus, 322 under tur Cajanus indicus, 209 under gram harbhara Cicer arietinum, and 1154 under other pulses. oilseeds occupied 264 acres or 0.61 per cent, all of them under gingelly seed til Sesamum indicum. Fibres occupied 13 acres or 0.03 per cent, all of them under brown hemp ambadi Hibiscus cannabinus. Miscellaneous crops occupied 37 acres or 0.08 per cent, 5 of them under sugarcane us Saccharum officinarum, and the remaining 32 under various vegetables and fruits.

People, 1881.

The 1881 population returns show, of 44,835 people 42,463 or 9470 per cent Hindus; 1869 or 4.17 per cent Musalmans; 488 or 108 per cent Beni-Israels; 11 Christians; and 4 Parsis. The details of the Hindu castes are: 1367 Brahmans; 389 Kayasth Prabhus and 4 Patane Prabhus, writers; 918 Lingayats, 161 Jains, 126 Vanis, merchants and traders; 21,098 Kunbis, 4048 Agris, and 73 Malis, husbandmen; 644 Sonars, gold and silver smiths; 507 Kumbhars, potters'; 517 Sutars, carpenters; 309 Shimpis, tailors; 279 Kataris, wood turners; 202 Buruds, basket makers; 144 Kasars and Tambats, copper smiths and lacbracelet sellers, 7l Telis, oilmen; 32 Beldars, stone masons; 16 Lohars, blacksmiths; 5 Patharvats, carvers and stone masons, 4 Koshtis, 3 Khatris, and 3 Salis, weavers; 2 Rangaris, dyers; 47 Guravs, musicians; 406 Nhavis, barbers; 276 Parits, washermen; 705 Gavlis, milk-sellers; 547 Dhangars, shepherds; 1746 Kolis and 323 Bhois, fishers and sailors; 347 Bhandaris, palm-juice drawers; 43 Ghisadis, tinkers; 22 Pardeshis and 5 Ramoshis, messengers and watchmen; 9 Khatiks, butchers; 1961 Kathkaris, 249 Vanjaris, 82 Thakurs, and 32 Vadars, unsettled tribes; 803 Chambhars, leather workers; 3386 Mhars, and 74 Mangs, village servants; 2 Bhangis, scavengers; 254 Gosavis, 169 Jangams, 36 Gondhalis, and 17 Holars, beggars.

MANGAON.

Mangaon is bounded on the north by Roha, on the east by the Pant Sachiv's territory and Mahad, on the south by Mahad, and on the west by the Habsan or Janjira. Its area is 353 square miles; its (1881) population 81,085 or 229 to the square mile; and its (1880-81) realizable land revenue £14,965 (Rs. 1,49,650).

Area.

Of the 353 square miles surveyed in detail nearly three-fourths of a square mile are occupied by the lands of alienated villages. The remainder according to the revenue survey contains 126,654 acres or 58.3 per cent of arable; 30,380 acres or 6.2 per cent of unarable; 490 acres or 0.1 per cent of grass or kuran; 22,420 acres or 10.3 per cent of forest; and 54,508 acres or 25.1 per cent of village sites, roads, rivers, and streams. From the 126,654 acres of arable land 456 acres have to be taken on account of alienated land in Government villages. Of the balance of 126,198 acres, the actual area of surveyed arable Government land, 94,087 acres or 74.2 per cent were under tillage in 1880-81.

Aspect.

Except towards the south the country is broken by a number of detached hills. Towards the north and west, near the Mandad river, most of the country is a rugged upland rising into isolated peaks and with many low winding spurs covered with brushwood and coppice.

Climate.

Except in some of the western uplands where the sea breeze reaches, Mangaon is hot during the hot months. During the fifteen years ending 1681 the rainfall averaged 118.18 inches. The details are:

Mangaon Rainfall, 1867-1881.

Water.

The chief rivers are the Ghod with a winding southerly course of about twenty miles and its tributary the Nizampur-Kal with a south-westerly course of eighteen miles. The water supply in most of the villages is scanty. In 1881-82 there were in all 465 wells, one dam, 206 ponds, and 227 streams and springs.

Soil.

The soil is poorer than in Pen or Alibag, and it has a larger proportion of arable upland.

Holdings,1881-82.

In 1881-82, 13,450 holdings or khatas were recorded with an average area of 9³/10 acres and an average rental of £1 2s. (Rs. 11). If equally divided among the agricultural population these holdings would represent an allotment of 6¼ acres, at a yearly rent of 14s. 10d. (Rs. 7-6-8). If distributed among the whole population of the sub-division, the share to each would amount to 1½ acres, and the incidence of the land tax to 3s. 7d. (Re. 1-12-8).

Rental, 1878-79.

The survey rates were fixed in 1863-66 for thirty years. The 125,206 occupied acres, at average acre rates of 8s. 11d. (Rs. 4-7-4) for rice land, 7s. 7¼d. (Rs. 3-12-10) for garden land, and 4⁷/8d. (3 annas 3 pies) for upland, yielded £14,814 4s. (Rs. 1,48,142). The remaining 274 acres of arable waste were rated at £25 4s. (Rs. 252) and alienations at £194 10s. (Rs. 1945). Deducting alienations £194 10s. (Rs. 1945), and adding quit-rents £139 4s. (Rs. 1392) and grass lands 18s. (Rs. 9), the total rental amounted to £14,979 10s. (Rs. 1,49,795). The following statement gives the details:

Mangaon Rent Roll, 1878-79.

Stock, 1881.

According to the 1881 returns 81,085 people owned 15,510 houses, 4532 ploughs, 251 carts, 12,032 bullocks, 10,264 cows, 9943 buffaloes, 107 horses, and 4771 sheep and goats.

Produce, 1880-81.

In 1880-81, of 123,609 acres, the total area of occupied land, 29,522 or 23.88. per cent were fallow or under grass. Of the remaining 94,087 acres 451 were twice cropped. Of the 94,538 acres under actual tillage grain crops occupied 84,355 acres or 89.22 per cent, 28,482 of them under rice bhat Oryza sativa, 20,000 under nachni Eleusine coracana, 19,895 under kodra Paspalum scrobiculatum, and 15,978 under chenna vari Panicum miliare. Pulses occupied 7115 acres or 7.52 per cent, 3144 of them under udid Phaseolus mungo, 1557 under gram harbhara Cicer arietinum, 874 under tur Cajanus indicus, 673 under mug Phaseolus radiatus, and 867 under other pulses. Oilseeds occupied 1591 acres or 1.68 per cent, all of them under gingelly seed til Sesamum indicum. Fibres occupied 1439 acres or 1.52 per cent, all of them under brown hemp ambadi Hibiscus cannabinus. Miscellaneous crops occupied 38 acres or 0.04 per cent, 7 of them under sugarcane us Saccharum officinarum, and the remaining 31 under various vegetables and fruits.

People 1881.

The 1881 population returns show, of 81,085 people 76,131 or 9389 per cent Hindus; 4833 or 5.96 per cent Musalmans; and 121 or 0.14 per cent Beni-Israels. The details of the Hindu castes are 1901 Brahmans; 879 Kayasth Prabhus and 12 Patane Prabhus, writers; 1963 Vanis, 169 Lingayats, and 53 Jains, merchants and traders; 43,321 Kunbis, 362 Agris, 17 Malis, husbandmen; 1036 Sonars, gold and silver smiths; 1037 Kumbhars, potters; 844 Sutars, carpenters; 409 Telis, oilmen; 348 Shimpis, tailors; 320 Buruds basket makers; 304 Kasars, copper smiths and lac bracelet sellers;' 99 Kachhis, fruit-sellers; 242 Salis, 22 Koshtis and 7 Khatris, weavers; 41 Kataris, wood turners; 11 Jingars, saddlers; 7 Patharvats, carvers and stone masons; 5 Sangars, blanket weavers; 30 Guravs and 16 Ghadsis, musicians; 740 Nhavis, barbers, 307 Parits, washerman; 3253 Gavlis, milk sellers; 701 Dhangars, shepards;1248 Kolis, 60 Bhois, and 18 Kharvis, fishers and sailors; 118 Bhandaris, palm-juice drawers; 79 Sarekaris, labourers; 28 Khatiks, butchers; 9 Pardeshis, messengers; 8 Kalans, labourers; 1573 Kathkaris, 50 Vanjaris, 45 Thakurs, and 7 Vadars, unsettled tribes; 1976 Chambhars, leather workers; 11,521 Mhars, and 100 Mangs, village servants; 427 Gosavis, 286 Jangams, 76 Joshis, 31 Gondhalis, 7 Holars, 5 Gopals, and 3 Jogis, beggars.

MAHAD.

Maha'd is bounded on the north by Mangaon and the Pant Sachiv's territory, on the east by the Pant Sachiv's territory, on the south by Satara and by Khed in Ratnagiri, and on the west by Janjira and by Dapoli in Ratnagiri. Its area is 459 square miles, its (1881) population 109,391 or 238 to the square mile, and its (1880) realizable land revenue £14,189 (Rs. 1,41,890).

Area.

Of 459 square miles, the area surveyed in detail, 14½ are occupied by the land of alienated villages. The remainder, according to the revenue survey, contains 172,573 acres or 59.2 per cent of arable; 6739 acres or 2.3 per cent of unarable; 2164 acres or 0.7 percent of grass; 33,698 acres or 11.5 per cent of forest reserves; and 73,801 acres or 25.3 per cent of village sites, roads and rivers. From the 172,573 acres of arable land 1822 have to be taken on account of alienated lands in Government villages. Of the balance of 170,751 acres, the actual area of arable Government land, 89,342 acres or 1.57 per cent were in 1880-81 under tillage.

Aspect.

In the north is a range of hills that centres in the great fortified scarp of Baygad. Towards the south the country is wild and rugged, broken by many spurs from the Mahabaleshvar hills. Along the central plain of the Savitri and up the valleys of its tributaries, though the country is much broken by low bare hills there is a large area of rice and garden land.

Climate.

Mahad is almost entirely cut off from the sea breeze and is subject to much greater changes of temperature than most of the district. During January and February the nights are sometimes surprisingly cold. But the days are almost always hot, and from the end of February till the break of the rains the heat is generally oppressive. The rainfall is heavy, the average fall during the twenty-two years ending 1881 being 12360 inches. The details are:

Mahad Rainfall. 1860 -1881.

Water.

The chief river is the Savitri, which takes its rise near Mahabaleshvar and runs through the sub-division in a north and then in a westerly course. Five of the Savitri's tributaries are streams of considerable size. The right bank tributaries are the Kamthi which joins the Savitri after a southerly course of four miles at Boraj; the Raygad-Kal with a course of about twenty miles, which falls into the Savitri about four miles above Mahad; and the Gandhari with a southerly course of about twelve miles falling into the Savitri a little below Mahad. The left bank tributaries are the Chola with a northerly course of about ten miles joining the Savitri close to Poladpur, and the Nageshvari with a northerly course of about fourteen miles falling into the Savitri opposite Dasgaon. Besides these rivers there were in 1881-82, 771 wells, fifty-two ponds, and 476 streams and springs.

Soil.

The rice lands of Mahad are particularly fertile, especially in the neighbourhood of Mahad, Ghodegaon, and Birvadi, where the greater portion of the land bears a rich second crop of gram tur and pavta.

Holdigs, 1881-82.

In 1881-82, 17,078 holdings or khatas were recorded with an average area of 10 acres and an average rental of 16s. 1d. (Rs. 8-0-8). If equally divided among the agricultural population, these holdings would represent an allotment of 7⁷/8 acres at a yearly rental of 12s. 8d. (Rs. 6-5-4). Distributed among the whole population, the share to each would amount to 1½ acres, and the incidence of the land tax to 2s. 6d. (Rs.1¼).

Rental, 1878-79

The survey rates were fixed in 1866 for thirty years. The 170,756 occupied acres, at average acre rates of 8s. 5¼d. (Rs. 4-3-6) for rice land, 6s. 5d. (Rs. 3-3-4) for garden land, and 4³/8d. (2 annas 11 pies) for uplands, yielded £13,784 6s. (Rs. 1,37,843). The remaining 1610 acres of arable waste were rated at £35 (Rs. 350) and alienations at £1474 4s. (Rs. 14,742). Deducting alienations 151474 4s. (Rs. 14,742), and adding quit-rents £388 (Rs. 3880) and grass lands £1 14s. (Rs. 17), the total rental of the 249 villages amounted to £14,209 (Rs. 1,42,090). The following statement gives the details:

Mahad Rent Roll, 1878-79.

Stock,1881-82.

According to the 1881 returns 109,391 people owned 21,156 houses, 11,389 ploughs, 179 carts, 17,218 bullocks, 13,741 cows, 9738 buffaloes, 47 horses, and 3821 sheep and goats.

Produce, 1880-81.

In 1880-81 of 170,546 acres, the total area of occupied land, 81,204 or 4761 per cent were fallow or under grass. Of the remaining 89,342 acres 1076 were twice cropped. Of the 90,418 acres under actual tillage grain crops occupied 85,675 acres or 9475 per cent, 29,109 of them under nachni Eleusine coracana, 27,591 under rice bhat Oryza sativa, 20,577 under chenna vari Panicum miliare, and 8398 under kodra Paspalum scrobiculatum. Pulses occupied 2440 acres or 2.69 per cent, 1439 of them under udid Phaseolus mungo, 426 under tur Caianus indicus, 331 under mug Phaseolus radiatus, and 244 under other pulses. Oilseeds occupied 2245 acres or 2.48 per cent, all of them under gingelly seed til Sesamum indicum. Fibres occupied 10 acres or 0.01 per cent, all of them under brown hemp ambadi Hibiscus cannabinus. Miscellaneous crops occupied 48 acres or 0.05 per cent, 10 of them under sugarcane us Saccnarum officinarum, and the remaining 38 under various vegetables and fruits.

People, 1881.

The 1881 population returns show, of 109,391 people, 102,640 or 93.82 per cent Hindus; 6725 or 6.14 per cent Musalmans; 19 Christians; 5 Beni-Israels; and 2 Parsis. The details of the Hindu castes are: 1999 Brahmans; 1006 Kayasth Prabhus and 3 Patane Prabhus, writers; 2091 Vanis, 325 Lingayats, 49 Jains, 7 Bhatias, and 5 Joharis, merchants and traders; 65,649 Kunbis and 3 Malis, husbandmen; 1597 Sonars, gold and silver smiths; 1533 Sutars, carpenters; 1048 Kumbhars, potters; 562 Shimpis, tailors; 381 Buruds, basket makers; 314 Kasars and Tambats, coppersmiths and lac bracelet makers; 154 Telis, oilmen; 102 Salis, weavers; 71 Beldars, stone masons; 28 Otaris, casters; 27 Patharvats, carvers and stone masons; 17 Lohars, blacksmiths; 8 khatris, weavers; 7 Sangars, blanket weavers; 5 Jingars, saddle makers; 150 Guravs and 8 Ghadsis, musicians; 86 Bhats, bards; 1056 Nhavis, barbers; 664 Parits, washermen; 2332 Gavlis, milk sellers; 752 Dhangars, shepherds; 1281 Kolis, 892 Bhois, 52 Gabits, and 35 Kharvis, fishers and sailors; 123 Bhandaris, palm-juice drawers; 64 Ghisadis, tinkers; 40 Khatiks, butchers; 39 Shindes, husbandmen; 23 Pardeshis, messengers; 11 Sarekaris, labourers; 794 Kathkaris, 47 Thakurs, 5 Bhils, and 1 Vanjari, unsettled tribes; 1521 Chambhars, leather workers; 14,684 Mhars and 66 Mangs, village servants; 3 Bhangis, scavengers; 517 Jangams, 231 Gosavis, 107 Kolhatis, 51 Gondhalis, 9 Gopals, 3 Joshis, and 2 Bairagis, beggars.